ZOO STANDARDS FOR KEEPING SMALL FELIDS IN CAPTIVITY
Jill D. Mellen
Metro Washington Park Zoo, 4001 S.W. Canyon Rd., Portland, OR 97221.
INTRODUCTION
The family Felidae is one of the most diverse
groups of carnivores, and includes species that
range in size from 1 kg (2.2 lb) to over 500 lb (230 kg). Small
cats are defined here as those
felids having an adult body weight of less than 20 kg (44 lb (Emmons,
1991, p.62). In most
"small" felids, a group that covers 29 species, males are larger than
females. This group excludeslions, tigers, leopards, snow leopards,
and jaguars, Panthera sp.; cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus;clouded leopard, Neofelis
nebulosa; and puma, Felis concolor.
In the wild, all species of small cats are more or
less solitary, i.e. intolerant toward adults of the
same sex, and exhibit a spatially and temporally dispersed social system
(Bekoff, Daniels, and
Gittleman, 1984). Most species predominate in woodland and woodland
fringe terrain although
some species may be found in nearly all terrestrial habitat types.
While larger species function at
or near the top of the trophic level, many small cats also serve as
prey for other carnivores.
Larger felids, tigers, lions, leopards, etc., also procure substantially
sized prey and typically eat
only once in several days; many smaller species take rodents and small
birds and must hunt and
eat several times per day.
HUSBANDRY
Minimum size specifications - Minimum recommended enclosure size is
based upon two weight
categories of the cats, those under 10 kg (22 lb and those ranging
from 10-20 kg (22-44 lb) (see
Table 1). Recommended minimum space per cat is as follows:
<10 kg = 6.5 x 6.5 x 8 ft (2 x 2 x 2.5 m) per cat (l x w x h)
<20 kg = 13 x 6.5 x 8 ft (4 x 2 x 2.5 m) per cat (l x w x h)
Floor space should be increased by 50% for each additional cat.
Terrestrial species should have
more floor space allocated than arboreal ones. Table 1 lists
which cats are terrestrial; the above
dimensions can be adjusted accordingly.
Enclosure contents - More important than an enclosure's size is its
complexity and usability. Care
should be taken to allow cats to utilize the vertical component of
an enclosure by providing aerial
pathways. Cats should have access to at least 75% of the enclosure's
vertical space. Further-
more, small cats seem to prefer perching platforms at or near the top
of their enclosure, a place
from which they can "hide" and peer out. They also prefer localized
heated areas. Durable plastic
materials as well as wood make good platforms/shelves for cats.
Small cats also require logs
upon which they can "sharpen" their claws. Rotting logs exposed
to the elements further
stimulate clawing activity.
Each enclosure should include at least one
visual barrier for a cat to completely hide behind.
Each cat also needs a den or secure area that can be defended against
a cagemate.
Shift or secondary holding areas are strongly
recommended in order to safely move animals
from their primary enclosure for cleaning, feeding, and medical procedures.
There should be one
holding cage for each cat. For cats weighing less that 10 kg (22
lb), each shift areas should be no
less than 2 feet (.61 m) high with minimum of 6 square feet (0.6 m2).
For cats weighing 10-20 kg
(22-44 lb), each shift area should be no less than 3 feet (1 m) high
with a minimum of 10 square
feet (1 m2).
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
Temperature - Temperature extremes should not exceed those of the cats'
respective native
habitats. Each cat should be able to move to an area protected
from wind, rain and direct
sunlight. Heat pads can provide additional sources of heat for
cats housed outside; appropriate
placement of heat pads can encourage the cats to stay in public view.
Cats housed continuously
outdoors should each be provided with a den designed to protect the
cat from the elements and
temperature extremes.
Some tropical species of small cats as well as temperate
ones can tolerate a fairly wide range of
temperatures but it is necessary to acclimate them slowly to lower
temperature ranges. Where
indoor temperatures exceed 85 degrees F (29 degrees C), a ventilation
system must be used.
Lighting - Sufficient lighting (approx. 100 foot candles at 10 feet
(3 meters) should exist in indoor
enclosures to permit routine cleaning, but more subdued light levels
(20-30 foot candles) are
recommended for exhibition purposes [There is some suggestion that
cats maintained indoors
should be kept under full spectrum light but this is not substantiated.]
The majority of small
cats are thought to be nocturnal in the wild and as a result, numerous
zoos exhibit cats under a
reverse day/night light cycle. Regardless, there are no data
to suggest that reverse cycles
increases the activity of the cats. In fact, small cats seem
more attuned to the noises and activities
of staff than to light levels.
Ventilation - Indoor housing should be well ventilated in order to minimize
drafts, odors, dust,
and moisture condensation. There should be 8-10 complete changes
of non-recirculated air per
hour, and with a 15-40% intake of fresh air. If possible, separate
circulating systems for each
indoor cat enclosures should be available to reduce the risk of disease
transference.
Water - Fresh clean water should be available at all times. Water
bowls should be cleaned and
disinfected daily. Some species routinely defecate in water bowls.
This behavior is difficult to
discourage. Elevating water bowls 6-12 inches above the ground
sometimes discourages this
behavior. Automatic watering devices may be used for some cats.
Sanitation. Hard surfaces of primary enclosures, food con-tainers,
and water bowls should be
cleaned and disinfected daily. Perches and shelves where
animals climb, sit, and rest should also
be kept free of feces and urine but it may not be necessary to clean
them daily. Dirt substrates in
outdoor planted exhibits should be raked and spot-cleaned daily.
Footbaths should be used prior
to entering and exiting all felid enclosures, or areas containing enclosures.
Each should be filled
with a disinfectant and its use strictly adhered to by all personnel.
Appropriate controls for
vermin infestation should be maintained.
Nutrition - The nutritional needs of small felids is well under-stood
and the following summary by
Mary Allen is offered (from Wildt, Mellen and Seal, 1992, pp 24-25).
"In general, wild felids share the same nutritional requirements
as the domestic cat, although
there is evidence that some species differ with respect
to selected nutrients. Nonetheless, from
a comparative perspective, wild felids are relatively
easy to maintain nutritionally. The advent
of commercially-prepared, nutritionally complete diets
have alleviated earlier reports of bone
disease, common when cats were solely fed muscle or organ
meats. Although well-balanced,
these frozen meat-based products have several inherent
problems. First, Vitamin A is present in
exceptionally high concentrations. The domestic
cat requires fewer than 10,000 (IU)/kilogram
(kg) of dry matter (DM). Some commercial preparations
contain 48,000 IU/kg DM. These is
some evidence that liver damage in the cheetah may be
related to excessive dietary intake of
vitamin A. Because these products are well-fortified
with other micronutrients, additional
vitamins and minerals should not be supplemented.
Secondly, fat content in these products
usually is in excess of 35% DM. Obesity in zoo-maintained
cats may be due, in part, to
excessive dietary intake of fat contained with insufficient
physical activity. Third, these foods
are typically soft when thawed. Soft diet consistency
may contribute to poor oral health.
Evidence suggests that feeding bones with meat attached,
2 days/week, may help provide
physical stimulation to teeth and gums. The provision
of small, whole vertebrate prey (mice,
rats, rabbits) twice/week will provide similar benefits
to small-sized cats. And lastly, these
meat-based diets are highly subject to spoilage.
Thawing under refrigeration and delivery in
insulated containers will check the growth of potentially
harmful microbes.
Other methods of feeding also can present
problems. For example, it is well-recognized that
leopard cats fed a specific canned felid diet (formulated
to meet domestic cat requirements),
developed severe optic problems eventually traced to a
taurine deficiency. In cases where
muscle or organ meat comprises the bulk of the diet (for
instance in institutions with performing
cats"), vitamin and mineral deficiencies can occur.
Based upon present knowledge, it can
be concluded that inadequate nutrition does not appear
to be affecting the health or reproductive fitness of
most wild felids in captivity. Nonetheless,
there are serious recommendations to be made, all of which
should be adhered to at the institu-
tional level. These include:
1. offering vitamin and mineral supplements
only if the bulk of the diet consists of muscle or
organ meats (appropriate types and amounts of supplements
include 2 kg muscle [horsemeat],
15 g of steamed bonemeal and 1 Centrum @ tablet [vitamin/mineral
source]).
2. providing detailed instruction to
keepers as to the proper thawing, delivery and handling of
foods highly subject to spoilage.
3. instituting a system for occasionally
changing the diet and maintaining detailed records and
dietary histories.
4. considering the regular use of a whole
prey and/or bones with meat attached both for oral
health and to stimulate natural eating behaviors."
Traditionally, captive felids have been fasted
one day per week. While this method may be
appropriate for larger cats, it is inappropriate for smaller felids.
Fast days are NOT recommended
for cats under 10 kg (22 lb).
VETERINARY CARE
Quarantine - Small felids are especially susceptible to diseases of
the domestic cat and all newly
arrived felids should be quarantined at least 30 days prior to entering
the collection area. For cats
originating from the wild or a range country source, the quarantine
period should be extended.
Beyond basic tests (CBC, serum chemistry panel, serum banking, and
physical exam), serology
testing for Feline Immunodeficiency Virus (FIV), Feline Infectious
Peritonitis (FIP), Feline
Leukemia Virus (FeLV), and Toxoplasmosis should be completed before
the animal is mixed with
other specimens. Three negative fecal checks should be completed,
and the animal treated for
external parasites (fleas, ticks, ear mites, etc.), if present.
Vaccinations - Adult felids should receive annual vaccinations
against feline distemper
(panleukopenia), rhinotracheitis, and calicivirus (FVRCP), semi-annually
if practical. Killed
products are best. They should also receive prophylaxis against
rabies, annually or at three year
intervals, depending on the product used. Only killed rabies
vaccines should be used for cats. In
areas where tetanus is endemic, felids should be vaccinated for this
disease on an annual basis.
Felids are also susceptible to non-specific diseases such as tuberculosis.
Kittens should be vaccinated with killed (FVRCP)
(Fel-o-vax) vaccine at 6-8 weeks, and
receive a series of four immunizations every three weeks as well as
when six and 12 months old.
Young should also be given rabies vaccine at 4-6 months if a risk of
exposure is present.
Fecal exams - A minimum of two fecal examinations are recommended per
year, and appropriate
parasite therapy instituted as necessary.
LITERATURE CITED
Bekoff, M; Daniels, T.; and J. Gittleman 1984.
Life history patterns and comparative social
ecology of carnivores. ANNUAL REVIEW OF
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS 15: 191-232.
Emmons, L. 1991.
Body size and feeding tactics. Pp. 62 in THE
GREAT CATS, Seidensticker & Lumpkin
(Eds.). Rodale Press, Emmaus, PA.
Mellen, J. 1991.
Factors influencing reproductive success in
small captive exotic felids (Felis ssp.): A multiple
regression analysis. ZOO BIOLOGY 10: 95-110.
__________ 1992.
Effects of early rearing experience on subsequent
adult sexual behavior using domestic cats
(Felis catus) as a model for exotic small
felids. ZOO BIOLOGY 11: 17-32.
Shepherdson, D. 1991.
A wild time at the zoo: Practical enrichment
for zoo animals. AAZPA 1991 ANNUAL
CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS, San Diego, 1991.
______________; Carlstead, K.; Mellen, J.; & Seidensticker, J.
Stimulating predatory behavior improves the welfare
of small cats. ZOO BIOLOGY (in press).
Sunquist, F. 1991.
The Living cats, Pp. 28-53 in THE GREAT CATS
(Seidensticker & Lumpkin (Eds.). Rodale
Press, Emmaus, PA.
Wildt, D.; Mellen, J. and Seal, U. (Eds.) 1992.
FELID ACTION PLAN, 1991 and 1992, AAZPA Felids
Taxon Advisory Group Regional
Collection Plan and IUCN Captive Breeding
Specialist Group Global Felid Action Plan,
Conservation & Research Center, National
Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Front
Royal, VA.
Wright, M. and S. Walters (Eds.) 1980.
THE BOOK OF THE CAT. Summit Books, NY.
Table 1. Weights of small cats (after Sunquist, 1991)
Genus Species Common Name Wt (lb) Wt (kg)________Habits
Cats weighing <10 kg
Felis rubiginosa
Rusty-spotted cat
2.2 1.0
arboreal
Felis planiceps
Flat-headed cat
3.4-4.5 1.6-2.1
terrestrial
Felis nigripes
Black-footed cat
3.3-5.5 1.5-2.5
terrestrial
Felis guigna
Kodkod
4.5-5.5 2.1-2.5
terrestrial
Felis tigrina
Oncilla/tiger cat
3.8-6.0 1.8-2.8
arboreal
Felis margarita
Sand cat
4.5-6.5 2.0-3.0
terrestrial
Felis manul
Pallas' cat
5.5-7.8 2.5-3.5
both
Felis catus
Domestic cat
6.5-8.8 3.5-4.0
terrestrial
Felis wiedii
Margay
5.5-8.8 2.4-4.0
arboreal
Felis marmorata
Marbled cat
4.5-11.0 2.0-5.0
arboreal
Felis geoffroyi
Geoffroy's cat
4.5-13.3 2.0-6.0
arboreal
Felis yagouroundi Jaguarundi
6.5-13.3 3.0-6.0
terrestrial
Felis colocolo
Pampas cat
7.0-14.0 3.2-6.4
terrestrial
Felis bengalensis
Leopard cat
6.5-15.5 3.0-7.0
both
Felis silvestris
Wildcat
6.5-17.5 3.0-8.0
terrestrial
Felis jacobita
Mountain cat
8.85
4.0
Cats weighing 10 - 20 kg
Lynx canadensis
Canadian lynx
19-22 8-10
terrestrial
Lynx rufus
Bobcat
15-22
7-10
both
Felis aurata
African golden cat 11-27
5-12
terrestrial
Lynx pardinus
Spainish lynx
26-28 12-13
terrestrial
Felis viverrina
Fishing cat
13-30
6-13
terrestrial
Felis pardalis
Ocelot
15-29
7-13
both
Felis temmincki
Asian golden cat 27-33
12-15
terrestrial
Lynx caracal
Caracal
24-33 11-15
terrestrial
Felis chaus
Jungle cat
9-35
4-16
terrestrial
Felis serval
Serval
18-40 8-18
terrestrial
Lynx lynx
Eurasian lynx
37-44 17-20
terrestrial
Alan H. Shoemaker(1), Edward J. Maruska(2), Randall Rockwell(3)
(1) Riverbanks Zoological Park, POB 1060, Columbia, SC 29202
(2) Cincinnati Zoo & Botanical Garden, 3400 Vine St., Cincinnati,
OH 45220
(3) Jacksonville Zoological Park, 8605 Zoo Rd., Jacksonville, FL 32218
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Within the family Felidae, determination of
minimum husbandry needs of large cats is variable
because of differences in size, morphology, and behavior. For
purposes of this discussion, a large
felid is identified as any species of cat belonging to the genus Panthera,
including: lion, P. leo;
tiger, P. tigris; jaguar, P. onca; leopard, P. pardus; and snow leopard,
Uncia uncia; as well as the
puma (cougar or mountain lion), Puma concolor; clouded leopard, Neofelis
nebulosa; and
cheetah, Acinonyx jubatus.
With one exception, large felids are
solitary carnivores functioning at or near the top of their
trophic level. While this behavior permits them to be housed
singly, it also requires that the
introduction of potential mates be done carefully to prevent fighting,
injury, or death. Their
aggressive nature and physical capabilities demand that owners exercise
the utmost care when
designing cages or exhibits for any species, regardless of size, to
insure that specimens cannot
escape or reach into adjacent cages or public areas. Caution
also should be exercised
when handling otherwise "tame" individuals.
Minimum requirements for exhibit size and furnishings,
diet, veterinary needs, and social
groupings are broken down in the following way: 1) very large pantherids,
2) other large felids,
and 3) cheetahs.
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
Some aspects of captive management for all
large felids are similar and are discussed below.
Requirements unique to certain groups are listed separately.
Temperature - Although large felids may originate from all manner of
climates, most are tolerant
of wide temperature extremes, at least during daylight hours.
Animals kept outside should always
have access to shade, especially during warmer months of the year.
When acclimated, most
species without young require only minimal unheated shelter at night.
Clouded leopards are more
cold sensitive than the other species and should be protected from
minimum extremes in weather.
When kept indoors year around, animals should be protected from temperatures
above 85 degrees
Fahrenheit.
Lighting - In nature, most species of large felids are nocturnal and,
therefore, less active during
daylight hours. Accordingly, they all do well under normal light
cycles although shy or secretive
specimens will thrive with less exposure. Smaller species may
be exhibited under reversed light
cycles without harm. Fluorescent lighting is an efficient light
source providing broad-spectrum
illumination.
Ventilation and Humidity - Indoor exhibits should have a negative air
pressure of 10-15 air
changes per hour of non-recirculated air. Relative humidity should
be within the range of 30 -
70%. Separate ventilation systems should be maintained between
exhibit and visitor areas to
reduce the potential of disease transmission from the public as well
as complaints from odor. If
possible, separate systems also should be maintained for individual
exhibits.
Water - Fresh clean water for drinking should be available at all times.
Watering devices should
consist of either exhibit built-ins for the larger species or sturdy
portable containers for smaller
species. Regardless of size, water containers should be cleaned
and disinfected daily. Some large
felids, especially tigers and jaguars, enjoy bathing and swimming,
and large pools should be
incorporated into outside exhibits, as appropriate.
Sanitation - Hard-surface primary enclosures and food containers (if
used) should be cleaned daily
with detergent and disinfectant. Perches and shelves where animals
climb and sit should also be
included in this regime. Dirt substrates in outdoor planted exhibits
should be raked and spot-
cleaned daily. Footbaths containing quaternary chemicals should
be used prior to entering all felid
enclosures or areas containing enclosures. Each should be filled
with a disinfectant and its use
strictly adhered to by all personnel.
Food - Large felids are easily maintained when fed prepared diets made
from beef or horse
products. Diets of this type may be obtained from commercial
sources that already have the
appropriate vitamins and minerals added, in amounts that vary according
to the age and status of
the specimen. Similar diets may also be prepared in-house.
Whole animal carcasses (rodents,
rabbits, or fowl), may be substituted upon occasion to vary the diet.
To address problems with
obesity, felids may be fasted one or two days a week. Bones,
especially those from joints or
knuckles, also should be given at least once or twice a week to maintain
good oral hygiene and
muscle tone; fast days are good opportunities.
In the past, many zoos fed large felids muscle
meat from freshly butchered livestock.
Although this source of feed is still occasionally used, owners are
cautioned that diets consisting
primarily of whole or ground muscle meat may be inadequate in vitamin/mineral
content. Diets
containing high percentages of fowl by-products such as chicken or
turkey necks may also be
nutrionally unbalanced. Owners should also be wary of carcasses
obtained from road kills or
donations because of the potential for contamination, and feed animals
selected from such sources
should be inspected to insure that they are free of disease..
Veterinary Care - Services of a veterinarian should be available. Periodic
(at least twice yearly)
fecal examinations should be required to check for parasite infestation.
When circumstances
permit, overall examinations should be performed and the results recorded.
Annual vaccinations
should include prophylaxis against feline panleukopenia (distemper),
rhinotracheitis, and
calicivirus. In areas where tetanus is endemic, felids should
be vaccinated for this disease on an
annual basis. Felids also are susceptible to non-specific diseases
like tuberculosis.
All large felids nearing adult size that are
likely to be transferred to another institution in the
future should be tattooed or receive microchip implants when the opportunity
arises. Common
species such as pumas, and specimens not otherwise eligible for studbook
registration should be
identified by their accession or ISIS numbers. Specimens entered
in regional or international
studbooks should have their registration number tattooed on the inner
aspect of the thigh, or other
area as directed by the studbook keeper.
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS
For purposes of the following discussions,
large felids are divided into three groups based
primarily on size, husbandry, or behavioral idiosyncrasy. No
taxonomic relationship should be
inferred.
1. VERY LARGE PANTHERIDS: Panthera leo, lion, and P. tigris, tiger.
Two species of felids may be described in this
fashion, the African or Asian lion and the tiger;
each species is represented in captivity by several subspecies or combinations
thereof. Both are
large species filling carnivorous niches at the top of their respective
trophic levels. A number of
subspecies have been named for each species but husbandry requirements
do not differ among
them.
Lions are the largest predator in Africa (and
formerly the Middle East to India) and males
attain weights of 330-550 lb (150-250 kg). Females are somewhat
smaller (Nowak & Paradiso,
1983). Tigers occupy a similar niche in Asia and although there
is less dimorphism in size; tigers
from insular origins are smaller than those from the mainland and Siberia.
The most northerly
race is the largest living cat and males weight 390 -675 lb (180 -
306 kg). In contrast, male tigers
from Sumatra weigh only 220 - 300 lb (100 - 140 kg). Both species
have gesta-tions of
approximately 105 days, and produce litters of 2-5 young (Nowak &
Paradiso, l983). Both
orange and white morphs are present in captivity, although the former
is more common (Seifert
and Muller, 1987).
A. Social Grouping: Since they are solitary at least part of their
life, either species may be kept
singly as well as in pairs. Large exhibits may contain additional
females although some older
female tigers may not tolerate other females. Males should normally
be kept separate from other
males. Mothers with infants should be moved to a cubbing den
or location away from other
animals prior to birth, and not reintroduced to other adults until
after the cubs are 2 or 3 months
old. Adult lions of both sexes will tolerate cubs of other females
if adequate space is available.
Many adult male tigers also tolerate females and their cubs.
B. Exhibit Size: Lions and tigers are easily maintained in traditional
barred or heavily wired cages
as well as in large outdoor exhibits employing moats to separate animals
and public. A cage for a
single animal should measure at least 20 ft (6.1 m) wide x 15 ft (4.6
m) deep (300 sq.ft/27.9
sq.m); cages should be 50% larger per additional animal. Although
adults do not climb well, their
leaping ability should not be underestimated. Outdoor cages should
have vertical jumpwalls at
least 16 ft (4.88 m) high or be provided with tops at least 10 ft (3.1
m) high. If moats are used as
a barrier, they should be at least 25 ft (7.6 m) wide and 15 ft (4.6
m) deep. All enclosures must
have smaller shift facilities to permit safe cleaning, cage repair,
or other separations. Shift cages
should measure at least 8 ft by 8 ft (2.44 m x 2.44 m). Because
both species are easily bred,
owners not wanting young or who are unable to use birth control implants
or neutering should
build separate cages to separate adults.
C. Remarks: Although both lions and tigers are terrestrial in
nature, they benefit from raised
shelves or ledges for sleeping and resting. Large logs are used
for claw sharpening. Young of
both species may be raised naturally or by hand without impairing future
parenting ability.
2. OTHER LARGE FELIDS: Panthera onca, jaguar; P. pardus, leopard or
panther; Uncia
uncia, snow leopard; Puma concolor, puma, cougar, or mountain lion;
Neofelis nebulosa,
clouded leopard.
The five felids listed above are discussed
together because of their similarity in size. All but
the snow leopard have numerous subspecies whose distinctions may be
ignored for purposes of
this discussion.
The jaguar is the largest New World felid and
ranges from the southern tip of South America
northward into Mexico, and formerly, into the United States.
Although similar in length to the
leopard, jaguars are heavier and males weigh 79 - 348 lb (36 - 158
kg) ; females are somewhat
smaller (Hall, 1981; Nowak & Paradiso, 1983).
The puma, also called cougar, panther, or mountain
lion in various parts of its range, is
distributed throughout the New World from the tip of South America
northward to British
Columbia and Alberta. Puma weights, 148 - 227 lb(68 - 103 kg)
vary widely throughout their
range; specimens from Canada are largest (Hall, 1981; Nowak & Paradiso,
1983).
The leopard is the widest ranging felid in
the world, and is found from South Africa across that
continent to the Middle East, Java, and northward to Siberia.
Sizes vary widely according to
habitat, and range from 82 - 200 lb (37 - 90 kg)(Nowak & Para-diso,
1983); those from desert
areas are smallest. Patterns vary markedly throughout their range
and animals from moist dense
forests may be melanistic (Kingdon, 1977).
The snow leopard appears similar in size to
the common leopard although thick fur belies its
lighter weight: 55- 165 lb (25-75 kg) (Nowak & Paradiso, 1983).
The smallest member of the
"large" felids is the Clouded leopard (Nowak & Paradiso, 1983).
Highly arboreal and restricted
to undisturbed forests of South-east Asia and Indonesia, it weighs
only 35 - 50 lb (16-23 kg).
Average gestation for all five species is 90 - 103 days, slightly less
for clouded leopards. Litter
sizes average 2-3 young (Nowak & Paradiso, 1983).
A. Social Grouping: All five species are solitary in nature and
may be kept by themselves or in
pairs except when young are present. Compatibility in some species,
especially leopards and
clouded leopards, may be a problem. Some leopards are only compatible
while the female is in
estrus (heat).
Clouded leopards are the most difficult members
of this group to establish as compatible pairs.
To insure compatibility, potential mates should be introduced to each
other while approximately
4-12 months of age and not separated for long periods thereafter.
While the female is separated
and raising young, the male should be housed nearby; some females will,
while raising cubs, even
tolerate the male in the same exhibit if space and den size is sufficient
(Shoemaker, pers. ob.).
B. Exhibit Size: Felids in this group are generally kept indoors or
in situations that permit viewing
through glass, bars or sturdy wire. Otherwise their small size
and secretive nature make them
difficult to safely exhibit in large moated facilities commonly used
for lions and tigers. Minimum
cage dimensions for single animals should equal at least 200 square
feet, and be increased by 50%
for each additional animal. As in the case of large pantherids,
a shift cage(s) should be available.
Because all five species are excellent climbers and leapers, secure
tops should cover all outside
enclosures.
C. Remarks: All five species are arboreal or live in rocky habitats
and should be furnished with
elevated ledges or perches for sleeping and resting. Wood logs
or other devices should also be
included. Young of all species may be raised naturally or by
hand.
3. CHEETAH: Acinonyx jubatus. The cheetah is morphologically and
behaviorally quite unlike
the two groups discussed above. A diurnal species, cheetahs are
physically adapted for running at
very high speed over short distances. Although approximately
the same length as most large
felids, they are much lighter in build and weigh only 77 - 125 lb (35
- 57 kg). Like other large
felids, males are larger. Gestation is 90-95 days and litter
sizes are 3-5 (Nowak & Paradiso,
1983).
A. Social Grouping: In nature, cheetahs tend to be solitary but
adults may be kept as pairs or in
larger groups with little difficulty. Problems in establishing
breeding groups may, however,
necessitate keeping adults of either sex separate from each other except
during pairing to
stimulate reproduction.
B. Exhibit Size: Cheetahs do best in spacious outdoor areas surrounded
by fence or moated
barriers. If kept in caged conditions, minimum dimensions should
equal at least 200 square feet
(18.6 square meters). Because they lack sharp retractable claws,
cheetahs climb poorly but
benefit from elevated wooden platforms or ledges for sleeping and resting.
C. Remarks: Cheetahs are relatively easy to keep in captivity
but remain the most difficult large
felid to propagate consistently. With the exception of the Pretoria
Zoological Garden's breeding
facility at DeWildt Breeding and Research Center, this species is not
self-sustaining in captivity
(Marker,l977). Although consistent husbandry techniques have
not been identified to date, many
owners experiencing successful reproduction keep female(s) separate
from males except when
they are in estrus (heat). Young may be raised naturally or by
hand although breeders were
primarily mother reared.
Cheetahs suffer from unusually high incidences of liver disease and research is presently (1988)
seeking solutions to this aspect of their husbandry. Other
investigations of their physiology seem
to suggest that dietary idiosyncrasies play a more important role in
the cheetah's fecundity than for
other large felids, and managers should stay abreast of new developments.
LITERATURE CITED
Hall, E. Raymond l981.
The Mammals of North America. 2:1027-1043. John
Wiley & Sons, NY.
Kingdon, Jonathon 1977.
East African Mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa.
III(A):348-365. Academic Press,
London.
Marker, Laurie 1987.
1986 North American Regional Cheetah Studbook. IV:1-90.
Wildlife Safari, Winston, OR.
Nowak, Ronald M. and John L. Paradiso 1983.
Walker's Mammals of the World, 4th Edition. 2:1081-1094.
The Johns Hopkins University
Press, Baltimore.
Seifert, Siegfried and Peter Muller 1987.
International Tiger Studbook 1986. Zoologischer
Garten Leipzig, Leipzig. l0l pp.
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